Introduction to Training and development

Human resources are significant in establishing and sustaining competitive advantage for the enhancement of organizational effectiveness since both are priceless, unique and irreplaceable resources. The definitions of human resource can be categorized under two broad strands which are generalist and distinctive.(Machado, 2015)

Based on the generalist perspective, human resources refer to a group of human capital controlled in a straightforward manner through employment by the organization which constitutes a source of competitive advantage (Machado, 2015). Meanwhile, the distinctive approach emphasize on employee skills, knowledge, abilities, attitudes, experience and wisdom.

Training and development falls under the distinctive approach. It focuses on improving the skills, knowledge and attitudes of an individual in order to do a particular job more accurately. In other words it can be called as a structured and planned process which helps to improve the performance and reduce the accident and wastage of resources      Obeidat et al., (2014).

Quote: “Training and development focuses on identifying, assuring and helping develop skills through planned learning and focuses on the key competencies that enable individuals to perform the current or future jobs”.                                                                                                           Patricia McLagan        

In todays context the term ‘Training and development’ has been replaced by ‘learning and development’ (L&D) for practitioners. observed that: The term training and development retains its popularity among academics but it has never been attractive to practitioners. They tend to dislike it because they see its reference to people as a ‘resource’ to be demeaning. Putting people on par with money, materials and equipment creates the impression of ‘development’ as an unfeeling, manipulative activity, although the two terms are almost indistinguishable Rosemary Harrison (2009: 5).

The learning technology landscape has exploded with myriad new tools, applications, and platforms designed to improve the learner experience. At the same time, organizations are looking to L&D to guide them through their digital transformations, ensuring the workforce has the skills and knowledge required to survive and succeed David Wentworth, (2019).

Apart from that it helps the employees grow and build their attitudes resulting in the growth of their self by bringing a positive impact to the job role played Gephart, M A (1995).

Since businesses are changing rapidly most companies focus on training and development in-order to have a better output Cartwright R (1988). Training helps to mold the attitudes of the employees and prepare them to face the future obstacles more successfully Cartwright R (1988).

 

For companies to keep improving and have a better recognition it has to conduct continuous training and development programs for their employees so they will be motivated and ready to face any competition more successfully and adopt to changes more positively Andrew Mayo (1998).

         

References :

Andrew Mayo (1998) Creating a Training and Development Strategy

Cartwright R ( 1998)  Implementing a Training and Development Strategy

David Wentworth, (2019) Article on learning and development

Gephart, M A (1995) The road to high performance: steps to create a high performance workplace, Training and Development, June, p 29

Harrison, R (2009) Learning and Development, 5th edn, London, CIPD

Lynton, R.P and Pareek, U (2011) Training for development

Machado, C. (2015). International Human Resources Management: Challenges and Changes. Springer, Retrieved March 23, 2015 from Bekele, A. Z., Shigutu, A. D., & Tensay, A. T. (2014). The Effect of Employees’ Perception of Performance Appraisal on Their Work Outcomes. International Journal of Management and Commerce Innovations, 2(1), 136-173.

McLagan, Patricia A. "Models for HRD practice." Training & Development Journal, vol. 43, no. 9, Sept. 1989, pp. 49+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A7695572/AONE?u=anon~9296f963&sid=googleScholar&xid=1caead91. Accessed 27 Oct. 2022.

Obeidat, B. Y., Masa’deh, R., & Abdallah, A. B. (2014). The Relationships among Human Resource Management Practices, Organizational Commitment, and Knowledge Management Processes: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. International Journal of Business and Management, 9(3), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v9n3p9

 

 

 

Uses of training and development

 

Training and development has been widely used by organizations which focuses on the high-performance aspect, as they always develop bundles of procedures that help with employee engagement, motivation and skill development examples of high performing work practices can be extensive and pertinent training, management development initiatives, incentive pay programs and performance management processes etc (Baron 2002).

Figure 1.2 shows why high performance work places focus on training and development, as seen in the below chart there is an interconnection between Efficiency and effectiveness. A person who is trained on his job can have a better output and higher level of performance than a new comer who is unaware of his job role Machado, C. (2015).

                                                                                          (Robison, 2008).

Organizations must engage in continuous learning in order to carry out their objectives and fit into the challenging business environment (Rothwell 2004). But there are some organizations which also believe that better performance will in some way improve by following a training and development program or other learning opportunity ( Niazi, A. S. 2011).

In other words, "We are not in the business of giving classes, learning tools, or even learning itself," according to professionals in workplace learning, We work to make it easier for businesses to achieve better results (Harburg, 2004, p. 21).

The degree to which learning initiatives meet management's expectations for increased performance determines how much money the firms are willing to invest in learning and how highly they are regarded (Harburg, 2004).

 

 

References :

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrongs handbook of human resource management practice

GeeksforGeeks. (2020). Difference between Training and Development. [online] Available at: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-training-and-development/.

Harrison, R (2009) Learning and Development, 5th edn, London, CIPD

Lynton, R.P. and Pareek, U. (2011). Training for Development. [online] Google Books. SAGE Publishing India. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=QqKoDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false [Accessed 6 Nov. 2022].

 

Machado, C. (2015). International Human Resources Management: Challenges and Changes. Springer, Retrieved March 23, 2015 from Bekele, A. Z., Shigutu, A. D., & Tensay, A. T. (2014). The Effect of Employees’ Perception of Performance Appraisal on Their Work Outcomes. International Journal of Management and Commerce Innovations, 2(1), 136-173.

McLagan, Patricia A. "Models for HRD practice." Training & Development Journal, vol. 43, no. 9, Sept. 1989, pp. 49+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A7695572/AONE?u=anon~9296f963&sid=googleScholar&xid=1caead91. Accessed 27 Oct. 2022.

Niazi, A. S. (2011). Training and Development Strategy and Its Role in Organisational Performance. Journal of Public Administration and Governance, 1, 42-56.
https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v1i2.862

Obeidat, B. Y., Masa’deh, R., & Abdallah, A. B. (2014). The Relationships among Human Resource Management Practices, Organizational Commitment, and Knowledge Management Processes: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. International Journal of Business and Management, 9(3), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v9n3p9

Robinson, D., & Robinson, J. (2008). Performance consulting: A practical guide for HR and learning professionals . San Francisco: Berrett - Koehler.

Rothwell, W.J. and Kazanas, H.C. (2004). Improving On-the-Job Training: How to Establish and Operate a Comprehensive OJT Program.

 

 

Types of training

 

There are two key methods of training.

1) On the job training – This is where the employees are been trained on a particular job while they are working. In other words they learn while they work. The superiors/ instructors give them the guidance while they are actually experiencing them. This method is more effective as the employee learns to do the things right and he finds easy and better ways to do it right. Eg: Induction Training, Apprenticeship Training, Coaching, Internship etc (Roger C 2003).

 

‘On the job training technique and delivery style were found to have positive and significant impact on the organizational performance'                                                                                                                                                             Niazi (2011) 

 

2)  Off-the-Job Training – Is where the employee is trained before they actually start working. They are been taught about the process and theories  and once succeeded the task is been granted. Here the trainee is separated from the job and his attention is focused on the learning, which is related to his future job performance. Eg: Class Room Lectures, Films, Case studies, Vestibule Training, etc., (Roger C 2003).

 

Apart from the above the employees can be been trained on the following aspects as well.

·       Technical Training – Here the employee is taught how to use a particular technology or machine in order to minimize errors caused.

·       Quality Training – This method is mostly practiced in companies which physically produce a product in-order to help the employees identify faulty products and allow perfect products to leave the factory. But in the modern world Quality training is been practiced at service sectors too as they want to build a good rapport among their customers.

·       Skills Training – Here the main focus is on training the employees to perform their particular jobs perfectly. For e.g. A receptionist would be specifically taught to answer calls and handle the answering machine.

·       Soft Skills – Soft skills training includes personality development, being welcoming and friendly to clients, building rapport, training on sexual harassment etc.

·       Professional Training – Professional Training is done in most industries to make sure their employees are in par with the market and ready to face the challenges evolving from the rapidly changing business world.

·       Team Training – This teaches the employee to work as a team. It also helps to establish a level of trust and synchronicity between team members resulting in increased efficiency (Gephart, M A 1995).

 

 

 

 

 

 

References :

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrongs handbook of human resource management practice

Gephart, M A (1995) The road to high performance: steps to create a high performance workplace, Training and Development, June, p 29

GeeksforGeeks. (2022). Difference between On-the-Job Training Methods and Off-the-Job Training Methods.

Harrison, R (2009) Learning and Development, 5th edn, London, CIPD

Niazi, A. S. (2011). Training and Development Strategy and Its Role in Organizational Performance. Journal of Public Administration and Governance, 1, 42-56.
https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v1i2.862

Roger Cartwright (2003) Training and Development Express, Capstone Publishing, 2003

Rothwell, W.J. and Kazanas, H.C. (2004). Improving On-the-Job Training: How to Establish and Operate a Comprehensive OJT Program.

 

Training on Intelligence Quotient – (IQ)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a derivative score which determines how intelligent an individual is (Goleman, 2019). In other words, IQ is a score derived from one of several standardized tests to measure intelligence and it was originally designed to assist and identify children who have difficulties in managing day to day activities at school (Kush, 2013).

There are numerous scholarly theories and arguments put forth as to what is more important in an employee’s success: IQ or EQ. It was once a common belief that a high IQ is important in succeeding life and work. But studies have now showed that both EQ and IQ are required and EQ in much higher proportion than IQ (Goleman, 2019). With Continued studies it is proven that having a higher IQ will not enable employees to engage and work in teams where as having higher EQ will have a positive impact in the work environment (Goleman, 2000). This doesn’t imply it is only required to have higher EQ. the organizations have to give priority on improving both EQ and IQ (Kush, 2013).

The originator of the theory of multiple intelligences “Howard Gardner” identifies seven different types of intelligences:

1.     Verbal/Linguistic

2.     Body/Kinesthetic – body language, physical gestures

3.     Musical/Rhythmic

4.     Logic/Mathematic

5.     Visual/Spatial

6.     Interpersonal

7.     Intrapersonal (self-understanding and insight) (Carter, 2005)

Practical importance of having a better IQ

     IQ is strongly related to measurable human traits such as educational, occupational, economic and social outcomes.

·       A better IQ is beneficious in life, since all activities require some analysis or reasoning and decision making.

·       Also, higher IQ generally required to perform in well in highly complexed jobs or environments. (Furnham, 2008)

·       IQ is major source of enduring consequential difference in job performance.

·       IQ is important in rising up the organizational ladder

·       Higher intelligence will reflect trainability. (Furnham, 2008)

Intelligence Quotient: Usefulness to manage organizations

According to Nettleback and Wilson (2005), IQ tests are useful investments of an hour or two to gain insights on individuals which are unlikely to be achieved with long periods of observations and monitoring. They also state that these tests could help in identify the existence of exceptionalities, which could be positive or negative. Further, it also could work as a diagnostic tool to identify problem areas. (Furnham, 2008)

Specific IQ test could be conducted during the recruitment and selection process of employees to determine their intelligence and the level of competency. (Furnham, 2008)

In conclusion, intelligence has many factors some are connected to an individual’s ability reason and others to feel and individual’s emotion. In other words, IQ tests the ability to solve problems, use logic and grasp complex ideas, whereas EQ test measures the ability recognize emotion in one’s self and others while using the awareness to make decisions. Both kinds of intelligence can influence the quality of work and organizational environment. The key to success can be the influence of both IQ and EQ.

 

References

Carter, P., 2005. The complete Book of Intelligence Tests. s.l.:Capstone.

Furnham, A., 2008. Personality and Intelligence at work. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.

Goleman, D., 2000. Working with Emotional Intelligence. s.l.:Bantam Books.

Goleman, D., 2019. Emotional Inteligence: Discover Why it can matter more than IQ. 2nd Edition ed. s.l.:Independent.

Kush, J. C., 2013. Intelligence Quotient: Testing, Role of Genetics and the Environment and Social Outcomes. s.l.:Nova Publishers.

 

Training on Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligences were presented to the world in the mid 90’s after magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan highlighted the areas of the brain that stimulates as people think and feel. The business world adopted this scientific approach to behavior, and it opened new ways of tackling personal and interpersonal difficulties at work (Biech, 2020). The concept of emotional intelligence was first identified by Salovey and Mayer in the 1990’s, who proposed that it implies the capability to understand emotions, incorporate emotions in thought, understand and mange emotions successfully. The concept was popularized by Goleman during the 1995 period, defining EI as “the capacity for recognizing our own and that of others, motivating ourselves, for managing emotions well in ourselves and in others” (Taylor, 2014).

According to Goleman, Emotional intelligence has for major components.

Self-management – this is the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses moods and regulate own conduct with tendency to pursue goals. Competencies associated with the component are self-control, Integrity, initiative, adaptability. comfort with ambiguity, openness to change, and desire to achieve.

2  Self-awareness – the ability to recognize and understand a person’s own moods and emotions, motivations, and their effect on other individuals. Competencies linked with this component is Self-confidence, self-assessment, and emotional self-awareness.

3.  Social Awareness – ability to understand the emotional state of other employees and skill in treating employees according to their emotional reactions. Compassion, expertise in talent management, organizational awareness, multicultural sensitivity, Valuing diversity and service to clients are identified as the key competencies.

      Social Skills – Proficiency to manage relationships and build networks to achieve desired goals from others while reaching personal goals. Also, the ability to see common grounds in a multi-cultural environment wile building a rapport. Leadership, change catalyst, conflict management, influence, effectiveness in bringing a team together is considered as key competencies under this area (Taylor, 2014).

The above components and competencies can be simplified through the below table.

Table 1 (Biech, 2020)

	What I See	What I do
Personal Competencies	Self-awareness	Self-management
Social Competencies	Social awareness	Relationship Management

 

Since Goleman’s contribution to emotional intelligence, Clarke (2007) have summarized three major models of emotional intelligence which dominates this part of study.

1.     Personality Models – Considered the most common theory of emotional intelligence following Goleman’s. This model considers EI as containing a range of emotional inclinations as well as skills.

2.     Mixed Models - consist of characteristics of personality as well as skills to identify emotional intelligence and manage emotions.

3.     The ability Model – defines emotional intelligence as a cognitive ability that involves the capacity to identify, reason with, and utilize emotions (Taylor, 2014)

Ways of improving emotional intelligence in the work environment.

In the modern era, many experts believe that emotional intelligence can be learned and developed overtime. It is also said that EQ plays a vital role in an individual’s professional success. The following ways can be used to improve the Emotional intelligence of employees and to promote an EI driven culture within an organization.

·    HR could either hire emotionally intelligent employees or enhance the emotional intelligence of the current employees. Fastest method to increase emotional intelligence competencies is to hire individuals who demonstrate those competencies and behaviors. Process of hiring could use an Emotional intelligence competence model, Understanding Competency Clusters, creating algorithms and using selection tools.

·   HR could also use Training and development to increase emotional intelligence within the organization. The HR system should consider the following ways before initiating efforts to increase EI within an organization: Leaders should understand the long-term benefits of emotional intelligence, have leaders experience the training before, help managers communicate the purpose, provide the heads with ongoing feedback.

·    Performance management also could help the organization in developing EI within the employees (Goleman, 2001).

Effective Training and Development Interventions

·    Human Relations Training – Pennsylvania State University developed a training model during the 1950’s, which consisted of 3 phases. Each phase primarily focused on Cognitive learning (discussion on managerial styles), Experiential learning (individual and group exercises, listening exercises, role plays), Motivational Theories (Maslow’s, Porters, McGregor, etc..) (Goleman, 2001)

·    Training on behavior models – this training model includes social and emotional competencies such as accurate self-assessment, Adaptability, initiative and innovation, empathy, and communication. Content based presentations, extensive role playing and encouraging on applying the learnings and providing feedbacks. (Goleman, 2001)

·  Self-management training for problem employees – Provide leadership and management trainings to develop interpersonal skills and self-motivation.

References

Biech, E. (2020). ATD's Handbook for Training and Talent Development. ATD.

Boyatzis, R (1982) The Competent Manager, New York, Wiley Competency and Emotional Intelligence (2006/7) Raising Performance Through Competencies: The annual benchmarking survey, London, Competency and Emotional Intelligence

Clarke, N. (2006). Emotional intelligence training: A case of caveat emptor. Human Resource Development Review, 5(4), 422–441.

Dulewicz, V and Higgs, M (1999) The seven dimensions of emotional intelligence, People Management, 28, October, p 53

Goleman, C. C. (2001). The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace. Jossey-Bass.

Taylor, M. A. (2014). Armstrong's Handbook of of Human Resource Management Practice. Kogan Page.

 

                                                                                          

Training on Innovation

 

Innovation is a new concept followed by many leading organizations where they insists and encourage their employees to  innovate thereby allowing them to adopt new processes and procedures, which the management believes will boost organizational effectiveness , Amstrong (2014).  

The business requirement and the difficulties that need to be resolved should be identified through analysis and diagnosis processes utilizing an evidence-based management approach to create the case for innovation, thus benchmarking can be used to find the organizations best practices.  However, "best fit" is more crucial than "best practice," meaning the innovation should address the unique demands of the company, which are probably different from those of other.  In simple terms, it must be able to be proven that the Innovation is relevant, advantageous and doable within the given conditions, Syrett (2006).

According to Criswell & Martin, 2008, “Innovation is one of the top 10 trends affecting business and leadership.”

 

Figure 1; Explains 5 key methods to foster organizational innovation

                                                                                                           Source : The Center for Creative Leadership

A brief on the key elements explained in Figure 1.

1.     Leaders : Identifying the leaders in an organization. This is where the HR system comes into play. They analyze who is good at what and delegate tasks accordingly.

2.     Culture  : Educating the employees on the culture of the organization and making them aware that the organization is open for innovation and foster them as and when necessary.

3.      Innovation Strategy : This is a main area which the organization has to be focused on otherwise the limited resources available can be misused. According to Marchington (1995), there is a risk that HR professionals will pursue "impression management," in which they would try to influence senior managers and peers by highlighting high-profile innovations.

4.     Budget : Since organizations are more concerned about utilizing the limited resources to have a better output sticking to budgets is very important.

5.     Direction : This is where the management overlooks on the innovator and guide as and when necessary to avoid unnecessary expenses.

Caldwell (2004) says, ‘ My credibility depends on running an extremely efficient and cost-effective administrative machine, If I don’t get that right, and consistently, then you can forget about any big ideas.’

 

References :

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrongs handbook of human resource management practice

Caldwell, R (2004) Rhetoric, facts and self-fulfilling prophesies: exploring practitioners’ perceptions of progress in implementing HRM, Industrial Relations Journal, 35 (3), pp 196–215

Criswell, C., & Martin, A. (2008). 10 Trends: A study of senior executives’ views of the future. (White Paper), Greensboro, NC: CCL Press.

Johansen, B. (2012). Leaders make the future: Ten new leadership skills for an uncertain world. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Marchington, M (1995) Fairy tales and magic wands: new employment practices in perspective, Employee Relations, Spring, pp 51–66

Motivation

 

Motivation theory explains a situation where the people of the organization are committed to their work and they are self motivated and find a way to achieve better performance while been highly engaged to the organizations activities. The specific benefits that each individual values is a matter of personal preference. From a very early age, human beings exhibit a strong intrinsic motivation to learn (National Research Council, 2000).

 

Figure 1 AMO-Model

Source : (Appelbaum et al., 2000)

 

Figure : 1 explains the AMO Model, which says Ability, Motivation and Opportunity to participate can directly influence the performance of an Employee resulting in the overall performance of the organization (Boxall and Purcell’s , 2003).

A requirement for effective education is the motivation to learn. This is true for both coursework-based learning and ongoing learning through application in the workplace. And the hope of future advantages that they value is what drives the majority of people to learn Storey (2001: 7).

Employee motivation aids in (Deressa & Zeru, 2019):]

·Innovation

·Higher employee engagement

· Highly efficient employees as they have a positive attitude and works towards achieving organizational objectives

·Decrease employee turnover

Therefore, HRM practices have an impact on individual performance if they promote  independent initiative, skill development, and performance opportunities. The formula serves as the foundation for creating HR systems that cater to the interests of employees, specifically  their skill needs, motivations, and the quality of their work (Pink, 2009).

 

 

 

References:

Appelbaum, E, Bailey, T, Berg, P and Kalleberg, A L (2000) Manufacturing Advantage: Why high performance work systems pay off, Ithaca, NY, ILR Press

Boxall, P F (2007) The goals of HRM, in (eds) P Boxall, J Purcell and P Wright, Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp 48–67

Boxall, P F and Purcell, J (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan

Deressa, A.T. and Zeru, G. (2019). Work motivation and its effects on organizational performance: the case of nurses in Hawassa public and private hospitals: Mixed method study approach. [online] agris.fao.org. Available at: https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=DJ20220501196 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2022].

National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school . Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Pink, D H (2009) Drive: The surprising truth about workplace motivation, New York, Riverhead Books

Storey, J (2001) Human resource management today: an assessment, in (ed) J Storey, Human Resource Management: A critical text, 2nd edn, London, Thompson Learning, pp 3–20

Employee empowerment

Employee empowerment refers to the manner in which companies provide their employees with anything and everything they need to succeed. This involves far more than simple resource allocation Keenoy (2013: 198). According to CIPD, companies that are interested in empowering employees should act on the following;

·  Give employees a voice by regularly soliciting and acting on their feedback, provide them opportunities to grow through more autonomy, additional responsibilities, or even an entirely new role.

·   Recognize employees frequently to increase their engagement and confidence in their own abilities.

·   Provide employees with the tools, training, and authority they need to excel. A company’s leaders, HR professionals, and fellow employees all play key roles in establishing a supportive, empowered environment. All parties need to establish mutual trust, feel comfortable taking risks, and establish clear expectations and guidelines. Without this collaboration, truly empowering employees is impossible.

“When someone is empowered, they have the ability to accomplish something and they know it, giving them the confidence needed to succeed Keenoy (2013: 198)”.

Employee engagement prescriptions as ‘motherhood and apple pie’ and suggested that the term engagement could be replaced by job involvement, empowerment, high performance management or ‘any of the other putative solutions’ to the problem of getting employees to be more productive McGregor’s (1960).

To help people get the most out of learning and development, we need to get their minds and hearts involved so they feel empowered

and act with a Can do Attitude. So they engage in activities and passionately

 work for their future resulting in the betterment of the organization. Apart

 from this empowered employees tend to take responsibilities and act wisely

 because they know that their actions have a large impact on them and the organization

 as a whole (Beverly Kaye).

So if the proper individuals are been identified and trained and motivated, they will engage in the organizational activities and try to innovate. So Employers have the ability to make a Employee better or Break an Employee.

“ This is a must - have for the shelf of all professionals who are charged with bringing change to their organization and actually seeing a return on investment! ” (Beverly Kaye).

A learning culture, according to Reynolds (2004: 9), is a "development medium" where workers will commit to a range of good discretionary behaviors, including learning." He recommended that to produce a culture of learning, Organizational procedures must be created and give the workers a feeling of purpose in the workplace and give them opportunities to act upon their commitment, and offer practical assistance for learning.

 

References:

Armstrong, M and Baron, A (2002) Strategic HRM: The route to improved business performance, London, CIPD

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2013) HR Profession Map, http://www.cipd.co.uk/ hr-profession-map-download.aspx [accessed 25 January 2013]

Kaye, B., & Jordan - Evans, S. (2008). Love ‘ em or lose ‘ em: Getting good people to stay (4th ed.). San Francisco: Berrett - Koehler.

Keenoy, T (2013) Engagement: A murmeration of objects? in (eds) C Truss, R Deldridge, K Alfes, A Shantz and E Soane, Employee Engagement in Theory and Practice, London, Routledge, pp 198–220

McGregor, D (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise, New York, McGraw-Hill

Reynolds, J (2004) Helping People Learn, London, CIPD

Reynolds, J, Caley, L and Mason, R (2002) How Do People Learn?, London, CIPD